Article: Cheda-sūtras

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The Sanskrit word Cheda-sūtra, or its Prakrit form Cheya-sutta, is the name of a group of texts in the Śvetāmbara canon. All the texts deal with the rules mendicants should follow in monastic life and with their technicalities. The ideal to which mendicants aspire is the perfect ascetic, but in practice there are many areas where monks and nuns may make errors. The Cheda-sūtras establish:

an exhaustive map of lapses in behaviour
details of the effects of these breaches
ways to compensate for errors through atonements.

The Prakrit word cheya – Sanskrit cheda – means ‘cutting’. This refers to the ‘reduction [of seniority]’ which is one of the consequences of transgressing the monastic rules.

The Cheda-sūtras reflect a stage in mendicant lifestyle where most monks and nuns live within a monastic unit – gaṇa – with fellow-mendicants. The monastic rules thus define:

an individual’s behaviour in relation with other mendicants
the group’s behaviour considered against other mendicant groups and wider society, represented by Jain lay men, kings and so on.

Atonements or penances assume their full meaning in such a context. Situations where a monk may wander alone, according to the oldest religious ideal, are also considered occasionally. However, the overall impression from the texts is that this mode of living is becoming an exception.

Rules and the penalties for breaking them are the main concern of these works. Many of the texts refer to or share material with other Cheda-sūtras. This suggests that they can be thought of as forming a single body, like the two main groups of Śvetāmbara scriptures, the Aṅgas and Upāngas.

Detailed stories are found only in the Mahā-niśītha, which is regarded as being of later date. In the other Cheda-sūtras examples are occasionally mentioned as single words or abbreviated phrases, which are expanded orally or in commentaries. The assumption of familiarity with the other Cheda-sūtras and scriptures, focus on mendicant lifestyle and the technical nature of the writings indicate that these works are intended for a knowledgeable audience of ascetics.

Mostly, the Cheda-sūtras are specialised works for mendicants to read. Among them, however, there is one chapter of a work that has gained independent status, attaining crucial importance in the religious life of the Śvetāmbaras – the Kalpa-sūtra. One of the Cheda-sūtras also contains a chapter where the 11 stages of spiritual progress for lay people – upāsaka-pratimās – are listed and described. This crucial concept is developed in later literature as well.

In contrast with the Aṅgas and Upāṅgas, which contain a fixed number of texts, this group of works is quite fluid. The Cheda-sūtras range in number from four to six.

This class of writings is written in Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit, the language of the core Śvetāmbara scriptures. For the most part in prose, it is often formed of concise aphorisms – sūtras. Extensive verse commentaries written in Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit on some Cheda-sūtras are indispensable. These help the reader understand the implications of the aphorisms and contain a lot of additional material as well, especially examples, anecdotes and stories.

Authority and number

A group of Jain nuns walks barefoot up a hill. Dressed in white robes with their heads covered, they all wear cloths fixed over their mouths, attached by strings over the ears. This identifies them as either Śvetāmbara Sthānaka-vāsin or Terā-panthin nuns.

Śvetāmbara Sthānaka-vāsin or Terā-panthin nuns
Image by arjunstc – Arjun © CC BY-NC-ND 3.0

The three main sects of Śvetāmbara Jainism have slightly different canons of holy texts. All of them recognise the Cheda-sūtras as an integral part of their canon.

But the Sthānaka-vāsins and the Terāpanthins, who accept canonical 32 scriptures, have fewer Cheda-sūtras than the Mūrti-pūjaks. The Mūrti-pūjaks count 45 scriptures as canonical and include two additional texts among their Cheda-sūtras. The number of the Cheda-sūtras therefore fluctuates between four and six.

Lists and titles

Four Cheda-sūtras are accepted by all Śvetāmbaras.

Cheda-sūtras accepted by all Śvetāmbaras
Name in Prakrit	Name in Sanskrit	Meaning	Details
Āyāra-dasāo or Dasāo	Ācāra-daśāḥ or Daśā-śruta-skandha	‘Ten [chapters] about monastic conduct’	10 chapters, of which chapter 8 is the Kalpa-sūtra.
(Bihā)Kappa	(Bṛhat)Kalpa	‘[Great] Religious code’	6 chapters
Vavahāra	Vyavahāra	‘Procedure’	10 chapters
Nisīha	Niśītha	‘Interdictions’ (title unclear)	20 chapters

In the recent Sthānaka-vāsin edition of the Cheda-sūtras, published under the authority of Pravartak Amar Muni, the Niśītha is not included. This is because Pravartak Amar Muni considers that there are ‘differences of opinions’ regarding this text (Illustrated Chhed Sūtra, Hindi introduction, page 8). Even so, according to personal communication from people connected with this project, this text will be published at a later stage.

To reach the number of 45 Āgamas, which has become a sectarian marker for the Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjaks, two Cheda-sūtras are added to the four core texts.

Additional **Cheda-sūtra**s among Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjaks
Name in Prakrit	Name in Sanskrit	Meaning	Details
Jīya-kappa	Jīta-kalpa	Customary rules	103 verses written by Jinabhadra-gaṇi in the 6th century
Mahā-nisīha	Mahā-niśītha	Large Niśītha	8 chapters in prose and verse

Ācārya Ānandasāgara-sūri was a monastic leader of the 20th century who edited the Āgamas for publication and made them known to a large audience. He recognised these works in his edition of the Śvetāmbara holy scriptures. This list was also adopted in the 2000 edition of the 45 Śvetāmbara Āgamas by Muni Dīparatnasāgara.

In this context the colophon of a Mahā-niśītha-sūtra manuscript copied in 1777 is significant. It shows how a Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjak monk suggested that a copy of the text be made to complete the fast called ‘45 Āgamas’. A group of lay women in Surat, Gujarat, thus commissioned the manuscript. From the 17th century onwards there is evidence that special fasts and ceremonies developed around the worship of the Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjaks’ 45 canonical scriptures. The canon and the associated ceremonies are thus public statements of sectarian identity. This copy is a strong gesture in support of the Mahāniśītha-sūtra, the authority of which is not admitted or is disputed by other Śvetāmbara sects.

Finally, the Pañca-kalpa is another text that belongs to this category, although it is not strictly included in it. This is because it is a commentary rather than the scripture about which a commentary is written.

Accessibility

The Cheda-sūtras deal with technicalities of monastic life. Their technical character explains why, in practice, mendicants read and use these texts. But restrictions in readership have also developed in the course of time.

In modern times, some lay people or scholars who are not mendicants have reported being forbidden access to these works. Among some Śvetāmbara monastic orders, such as the Kharatara-gaccha, nuns are not encouraged to read them, though monks can do so.

On the other hand, it is noteworthy that a nun has produced a remarkable scholarly achievement, which includes a translation into Hindi. Samaṇi Kusumaprajñā of the Terāpanthin monastic order has provided one of the most recent editions and studies of one Cheda-sūtra, the Jīta-kalpa (2010). The Terāpanthins are among the Jain monastic orders where nuns are given every encouragement to pursue academic work. The samaṇis, in particular, focus on higher educational attainments.

Language and form

The four Cheda-sūtras recognised by all Śvetāmbaras are written in the variety of Prakrit known as Ardhamāgadhī, like the main categories of the Śvetāmbara canon, such as the Aṅgas and Upāṅgas. This suggests that they may date from the same period, the fifth century.

The first one, the Āyāra-dasāo, is somewhat different from the three other Cheda-sūtras in its form, as it contains verse chapters with lists of terms. The three others are written in prose in the form of aphorisms. They are thus interrelated and, to some extent, have common material. It is likely that they are the result of ‘a process of growth’ (Dixit 1978: 46), perhaps collecting rules that were elaborated in various religious centres at slightly different periods.

The additional Cheda-sūtras demonstrate mixed form and language.

Details of additional **Cheda-sūtra**s
Name in Sanskrit	Details
Jīta-kalpa	A single sūtra of 103 verses, written by Jinabhadra-gaṇi, a 6th-century author
Mahā-niśītha	In prose and verse, it combines archaic features found in the Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit and Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī languages
Pañca-kalpa	A verse commentary – bhāṣya – written in Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit, using the metre known as āryā

These features may indicate that these works do not belong to the core of the canonical scriptures. They explain, at least partly, why their status is a matter of controversy and difference among Mūrti-pūjaks on the one hand and the non-image-worshipping Śvetāmbara sects on the other hand.

Generally speaking, all the Cheda-sūtras make use of considerable technical terminology. They often take these terms for granted and do not provide basic definitions, giving the idea that they are meant for specialists. These specialists would be mendicants, who know the special language. The texts assume knowledge of the other Cheda-sūtra works.

The Cheda-sūtras also use set modes of reasoning, which are used throughout the literary network that these texts build. For example, the text often contrasts situations in which general rules are applied with exceptional situations that need the rules to be adjusted. These exceptional conditions fall into two main types:

those relating to the mendicant’s individual situation, such as illness, old age or being too young
external circumstances, such as famine, political disturbance, climatic disaster.

Another common framework in the Cheda-sūtras is the establishment of rules and penalties based on the motivations behind a transgression. If a mendicant breaks the rules, the breach is considered to be of varying degrees of seriousness. depending on whether it is committed:

out of carelessness
involuntarily
knowingly.

Contents of individual texts

This illustration from an Uttarādhyayana-sūtra manuscript depicts some of the qualities of a 'true monk', a perfect ascetic

The ‘true monk’
Image by British Library © CC0 1.0 (Creative Commons Public Domain)

In the main the Cheda-sūtra texts appear to rely on the reader’s familiarity with other writings in the Śvetāmbara canon. Much of the canon is concerned with rules for mendicant lifestyle and the concept of the perfect ascetic. These technical topics are also the focus of most of the Cheda-sūtras.

The texts go into great detail about the rules monks and nuns must follow and the potential lapses in ideal behaviour and thought. Making up for any transgressions is explored thoroughly and the importance of atoning correctly is stressed. This requires the culprits to:

recognise their mistakes
accept penalties from their superiors
complete the atonements or penances they are given.

The atonements always begin with confession. An atonement itself, confession of a wrong or fault is believed to be the first step in proper atonement. Common atonements are fasting and isolation or exclusion. The results of not atoning properly are also dealt with, which is primarily a spiritual punishment in the form of karma producing unfavourable births in the future.

The Cheda-sūtras’ emphasis on a transgressor’s confession to and accepting punishment from a teacher or superior strengthens mendicant hierarchy. Atonement can only be proper if it involves confessing to one’s teacher and accepting the punishment.

Weight is also laid on the appropriateness of an atonement. A program of atonements is set out for various lapses but adapting the punishments to a particular situation is stressed. In particular, senior mendicants should consider the motives and knowledge of the culprit when deciding on the correct atonements.

Two elements of the Cheda-sūtra texts are unusual. The sixth chapter of the Ācāra-daśāḥ discusses lay people instead of monks and nuns. The eighth chapter of the same work has become important in its own right and occupies a central role in the principal Śvetāmbara festival. Though the Kalpa-sūtra deals with mendicant life during the rainy season, it gains some of its significance from the fact that it covers things that have become characteristic of Śvetāmbara Jain identity and tradition.

The texts that the Sthānaka-vāsins and the Terāpanthins do not accept as Cheda-sūtras also demonstrate some unusual features, which are the reasons they are disputed. Unlike most canonical scriptures, the Jīta-kalpa has a named author. It is also written in verse. Finally, the Pañca-kalpa is a commentary, not a scripture in the strict sense.

Ācāra-daśāḥ

A Śvetāmbara monk and a bookstand – sthāpanācārya – which symbolises his role and authority as teacher. It holds a scripture in protective cloth. He sits on a low plaform while pupils sit on the floor. Religious beliefs were originally passed on orally

Monk and pupils
Image by Chandu Shah © Chandu Shah

Also known as the Daśā-śruta-skandha, the title Ācāra-daśāḥ means Ten [Chapters] about [Monastic] Conduct. Several of the chapters centre on a notion expressed by a technical term implying a specific number of components.

Chapter 1 describes 20 kinds of wrong behaviours which disturb equanimity or control in ascetic life – asamādhi-sthāna. Instances are:

walking very fast, which does not allow the mendicant to behave with due forethought
causing harm to living beings
speaking without purpose or knowing the reality
quarrelling.

The second chapter describes 21 kinds of major faults – śabala-doṣa – which are offences against the major monastic vows. Examples of these breaches relate to:

sexual activity, such as masturbation
absence of restraint when eating food
behaviours that imply violence.

Chapter 3 deals with 33 offences, cases of disrespect or irreverence – āśātanās. This relates to rules of seniority between mendicants and situations where junior mendicants do not behave as they should with senior monks. Examples include a junior monk’s:

walking ahead of a senior
bringing food back to the monastic lodgings and inviting the head monk to eat after first asking another monk
interrupting when a senior monk is speaking.

Chapter 4 is concerned with eight qualities required from a mendicant who leads a group – gaṇi-sampayā. They are:

wealth of right conduct
wealth of right knowledge
wealth of impressive physical body
wealth of eloquence
wealth of teaching orally
wealth of proper understanding
wealth of proper application of knowledge and experience
expertise in collection and distribution(Illustrated Chhed Sutra, 2005: 35).

Then it explains how this proper leader is able to train younger mendicants.

Chapter 5 deals with proper position of the mind – citta-samāhi. This is the logical consequence of proper behaviour as described in earlier chapters. There are ten stages of mind relating to transcendent cognition, a type of knowledge mendicants hope to attain. A set of 17 verses is appended to this chapter.

Curiously, the next chapter is concerned with lay people instead of mendicants. It describes the 11 successive stages of their spiritual progress – upāsaka-pratimā. This is a vital concept, which is complementary to the lay man’s vows – aṇuvrata (Williams 1963: 172–181). It takes him from being a believer to a monk, through stages where he progressively renounces all that makes up the life of a lay person engaged in worldly life. The upāsaka-pratimā steps are the:

stage of right views – darśana-pratimā
stage of taking the vows – vrata-pratimā
stage of practising the sāmāyika – sāmāyika-pratimā
stage of fasting – poṣadha-pratimā
stage of ascetic posture and self-restraint – kāyotsarga-pratimā
stage of absolute chastity – brahmacarya-pratimā
stage of giving up certain foods normally allowed to a lay man – sacitta-tyāga-pratimā
stage of giving up violent activities – ārambha-tyāga-pratimā
stage of giving up ties to household life – preṣya-tyāga-pratimā
stage of giving up specially prepared food and commodities – uddiṣṭa-tyāga-pratimā
stage of becoming a mendicant – śramaṇa-bhūta.

Chapter 7 provides the 12 stages on the path of a mendicant’s spiritual progress. They imply the increased practising of self-discipline, austerities, restrictions and meditation. Their names correspond to durations. In the last stage, the mendicant attains omniscience.

The eighth chapter is the famous Kalpa-sūtra. Its third section deals with specific aspects of proper religious conduct – sāmācārī – during the rainy season.

Chapter 9 is presented as a sermon Mahāvīra delivers to people gathered in the city of Campā. Taking the form of 39 verses, it describes 30 important factors that cause the ‘deluding karma’ – mohanīya-karma. The causes relate to seriously violent or malevolent actions. Examples of this deluding karma causes include someone’s:

using a weapon to hit the head or neck of a living being, with ill intent, piercing or cutting it
falsely accusing others
conspiring against other people.

The final chapter is set in a narrative frame. King Śreṇika and Queen Cellanā show off their magnificence when they sit in their chariot and come to Mahāvīra’s sermon. At this sight some monks and nuns wish that they may enjoy the same wealth and ease in a future birth. Such wrong wishes are called nidāna, a title sometimes given to this chapter. Another title is ‘Points Relating to the Future’ – āyāti-sthāna. On this occasion, Mahāvīra equates such wishes with inner thorns and explains their negative consequences, as they hinder monastic practice and spiritual progress.

Bṛhat-kalpa

Some of the places that mendicants are forbidden to stay in as listed in chapter 2 of the Br̥hat-kalpa-sūtra. Staying there is forbidden because the chance of accidentally causing harm to other forms of life is high in these places.

Lodgings forbidden to mendicants
Image by Diwakar Prakashan / Padma Prakashan © Diwakar Prakashan / Padma Prakashan

The term br̥hat means ‘great, large’. This adjective distinguishes this work from the other Kalpa-sūtra, the work connected with the festival of Paryuṣaṇ. This text belongs to the oldest books of the Śvetāmbara canon. The Bṛhat-kalpa deals with rules to be followed by monks and nuns in their daily life or with things forbidden to them.

The rules are expressed in the form of sentences that are ‘often linked by rather loose associations of ideas’ (Caillat 1975: 14). The most common phrasing starts with what is not permitted, then states what is permitted, like this:

no kappai nigganthāṇa vā nigganthīṇa vā – ‘Monks or nuns are not allowed to…’
kappai nigganthāṇa vā nigganthīṇa vā – ‘Monks or nuns are allowed to….’

An instance is provided at the very beginning of the text:

Monks or nuns may not accept as alms the unripe shoots of the Palmyra palm unless they have been cut open. Monks and nuns may accept as alms the unripe shoots of the Palmyra palm only if cut open

1.1–2, Bollée’s translation 1998, volume 1: xii and xiii

The Bṛhat-kalpa is organised in six chapters. They are not easy to characterise individually as each one deals with a variety of matters, in a sequence that is not always clear. For translations of the sūtra see Schubring 1905, Bollée 1998 and Illustrated Chhed Sūtra 2005. For a detailed summary of the contents of the bhāṣya, which is extensive, see Bollée 1998. Commentarial techniques in the verse commentary and their purpose are surveyed in Jyäväsjarvi 2010.

The terms the Bṛhat-kalpa uses for monks and nuns are typical of the earliest Śvetāmbara canonical scriptures. There are specific rules and heavier restrictions for nuns, such as not being allowed to move around alone.

These rules cover all areas of monastic life, such as:

wandering
staying in one place, including suitable places and how long to stay
procedures regarding acceptance or non-acceptance of food
monastic equipment
atonements for various lapses, dealt with in chapters 4 and 5.

One of the major concerns is that objects given to mendicants should not have been prepared specially for them. The idea is that there should not be any pressure on the lay community. This is connected to an important motivation behind the rules, which is concern for the reputation of the monastic community in society (Granoff 2012). This text puts more emphasis on this issue than any other Cheda-sūtra (Dixit 1978: 45).

Vyavahāra

The central concept in monastic life, confession – ālocanā – should be as straightforward as a child who tells his mother everything, or like the snake going to its hole. It should not be like a turban's twists or the snake's usual sinuous movements.

Nature of confession
Image by Diwakar Prakashan / Padma Prakashan © Diwakar Prakashan / Padma Prakashan

Like the Br̥hat-kalpa, this work belongs to the oldest books of the Śvetāmbara canon. Its similarities to the Br̥hat-kalpa have been acknowledged by the Jain tradition itself. But, as its name – Procedure – suggests, the Vyavahāra emphasises how to apply the system of atonements – prāyaśicttas. This system regulates the ways in which mendicants make amends for lapses in their conduct. Application of the correct penalty is its major concern.

Beyond the general rules, the text insists on the fact that the atonements must take into account details of the:

circumstances in which when the faults took place
culprits, especially their monastic rank.

The idea is that an atonement will not help if it is not adjusted or suitable to the person.

The Vyavahāra has ten chapters, which are hard to describe because they cover diverse subjects in ways that are not obviously logical. The main topic is atonement, which is detailed in the verse commentary – bhāṣya. The traditional list has ten atonements in ascending order of severity.

Ten traditional atonements
Number	Sanskrit	Details
1	ālocanā	confession
2	pratikramaṇa	repentance
3	miśra	‘mixed’ – which means a combination of confession and repentance, the latter following immediately
4	viveka	restitution – which means giving back alms received in good faith after learning that they are impure
5	vyutsarga	abandonment of the body, which is the same as kāyotsarga, and basically refers to the ascetic posture where one has no regard for the body
6	parihāra	isolation from other mendicants
7	cheda	partial suppression of religious seniority
8	mūla	radical suppression of religious seniority
9	anavasthayā	demotion
10	pārāncita	exclusion or expulsion from the monastic group

Confession is stressed as being both the first atonement and the preliminary for proper atonement. Because stating one’s fault in clear terms is a prerequisite for getting a proper cure, atonements are often said to be like a medicine.

Numerous related situations in the life of monastic groups, including those of nuns, are discussed in the Vyavahāra, such as:

relations between junior and senior mendicants
expulsion of a member from the group
reintegration of expelled members within the group
reasons for leaving one group and joining another
religious hierarchy, namely appointments to religious posts
procedure regarding the collection of food.

Despite this emphasis on how to apply penalties for breaking rules, the Vyavahāra-sūtra also consists of aphorisms of rules relating to monastic behaviour, without reference to atonements. One of the major concerns is how a mendicant should behave with other mendicants.

Niśītha

The title ‘appears to be a mixture of Prakrit niseha – ‘interdiction’ – and nisīhiyā – ‘place of study’ (Schubring 1962: 112). In relative chronology, this work is much later than those already described. It is organised in 20 chapters, which form ‘a huge compilation’ (Dixit 1978: 44). The main subject is the atonement called parihāra – ‘isolation’ or ‘exclusion’. Isolation may be total or partial – reduced – or with additional punishment.

The whole work is structured around the topic, with the degrees of penance organised in chapters.

Degrees of the penance of isolation in the *Niśītha*
Chapter	Detail of isolation penance
1	one month without reduction – aṇ-ugghāiya in Prakrit
2 to 5	one month with reduction – ugghāiya in Prakrit
6 to 11	four months without reduction
12 to 19	four months with reduction
20	‘additional punishment – ārovaṇā in Prakrit – when previous transgressions have been concealed or new ones were committed’ (based on Schubring 1962: 112).

Jīta-kalpa

Unlike the other Cheda-sūtras, the Jīta-kalpa is not anonymous. It was written by Jinabhadra-gaṇi, a famous religious teacher who lived in the 6th century CE and is the author of various sophisticated Prakrit commentaries. This prestigious authorship could be one of the reasons why the Jīta-kalpa is included in this category, though it is much later than the other Cheda-sūtras.

Another feature which makes this work different from others in the same category is that the sūtra is not in prose, but in verse.

The Sanskrit word jīta – jīya in Prakrit – in the title is a technical term. It refers to a theoretical list of procedures towards a transgressor. Five of them are recorded and jīta is the fifth.

Procedures against transgressors of the monastic rules
Prakrit term	Sanskrit term	English translation
āgama	āgama	canon
suya	śruta	tradition
āṇā	ājñā	rule
dhāraṇā	dhāraṇā	charge
jīya	Jīta	custom

It is not easy to determine exactly what these terms mean. But it is thought that the other Cheda-sūtras described above define atonements on the basis of traditional teaching, whereas the Jīta-kalpa is based on custom and practice.

This work starts with a list of the ten atonements, and then describes each of them in turn in its 103 verses. Special emphasis is laid on the sixth one, ‘fast’ – tava – which occupies about half of the text. Fasts are categorised based on the type of food consumed or given up and on their durations. They are described in highly technical language. The Jīta-kalpa is the basis for later texts dealing with monastic atonements, such as the Yati-Jīta-kalpa, written in 1399 CE.

It has to be read along with the:

extensive verse commentary – bhāṣya – also composed by Jinabhadra-gaṇi
Prakrit prose commentary – cūrṇi – by Siddhasena-sūri
Sanskrit commentary written by Śrīcandra.

Jīta-kalpa on JAINpedia

A palm-leaf manuscript from Tamil Nadu. The manuscript is kept together by a string threaded through holes in each long thin folio. When the teachings of the Jinas were first written down, they were etched onto palm leaves, which are very fragile

Palm-leaf manuscript
Image by Nalini Balbir © Nalini Balbir

Except for the verse commentary – bhāṣya – all the texts connected with the Jīta-kalpa have been digitised on JAINpedia. They are in the form of two palm-leaf manuscripts dating back to the 12th century, held in the British Library. This is worth noting because:

manuscripts of the Jīta-kalpa and its commentaries are not very common, even in India
palm-leaf manuscripts produced in western India are extremely rare in libraries outside India.

The digitised manuscripts contain:

the Jīta-kalpa-sūtra from the first verse up to the final 103rd stanza
a brief supplement devoted to the lay man’s atonements, called the Sāvaya-pacchitta (unpublished; Balbir 2012 forthcoming), which begins immediately after the Jīta-kalpa proper
Siddhasena’s cūrṇi
Śrīcandra’s commentary, called Bṛhac-cūrṇi-vyākhyā.

Mahā-niśītha

This manuscript painting from a copy of the Kalpa-sūtra shows a Śvetāmbara teacher instructing a monk. As he is more important, he is bigger in the picture and sits on a dais above the junior mendicant, who raises his hands in respect.

Teacher instructs a monk
Image by Victoria and Albert Museum © V&A Images/Victoria and Albert Museum, London

The Mahā-niśītha-sūtra’s eight chapters mainly deal with:

confession
contrition
atonement
monastic hierarchy
definitions of accomplished and imperfect monks.

These topics are found in other Cheda-sūtras. The title echoes the Niśītha-sūtra, which belongs to the same category, and, because its title means ‘great niśītha-sūtra’, it suggests that this is a full version of the work. But its style is quite different. Instead of the expected concise aphoristic style, it alternates discursive parts in prose and long verse portions. Many of these verses can be found in other Jain works of various dates. On the other hand, several chapters are narrative in character. Thus this work contains disparate styles.

All these characteristics may explain why the Mahā-niśītha-sūtra has aroused suspicions of its credibility, both among Sthānaka-vāsin Jains and modern scholars.

Additional reasons for suspicion are the:

‘references to goddesses and magic spells not found elsewhere in the canon’ (Dundas 2002: 76)
mention of image-worship, which is rejected by non-Mūrti-pūjak Śvetāmbaras.

The general frame of the text, however, is close to that found in the Aṅgas and Upāngas. The whole work is introduced against the background of a question-and-answer format between two individuals. The thrust of the work then appears within a dialogue between Mahāvīra and his chief disciple Indrabhūti Gautama.

The Mahā-niśītha-sūtra also contains a ‘story of the rescue and restoration of a dilapidated manuscript of the work from a temple in Mathurā’ (Dundas 2002: 76), which is hard to trust.

Thus, in some respects, the Mahā-niśītha-sūtra can be described as pseudo-canonical. It is not old, but displays an archaic bent.

Chapters of the *Mahā-niśītha-sūtra*
Chapter	Name	Meaning	Details
1	Sall’-uddharaṇa	‘Extraction of Thorns’	prose introduction and 222 verses, mainly ślokas
2	Kamma-vivāga-vivaraṇa	description of the maturation of karma	209 ślokas and a long prose passage
3	no title		divided into 31 sections, 122 verses and prose passages
4	no title		prose and 14 āryā verses
5	Duvālas’anga-suyanāṇassa Navaṇīya-sāra	‘Cream of scriptural knowledge in the form of the 12 Aṅgas’	121 verses and prose
6	Gīyattha-vihāra	‘Life of an Experienced Monk’	411 verses then a predominantly narrative chapter
7	Pacchitta-sutta	Atonements	verse and prose
8	Susaḍha-kahā	story of Sujjhasirī and Susaḍha	prose and a few verses

Reading

‘Lay Atonements: Investigation into the Śvetāmbara Textual Tradition’ Nalini Balbir: Prof. W. B. Bollée Felicitation Volume
edited by Peter Flügel
Routledge; London, UK; forthcoming

Full details

Bhadrabāhu Bṛhatk-kalpa-niryukti and Sanghadāsa Bṛhat-kalpa-bhāṣya Willem B. Bollée: Beiträge zur Südasienforschung, Südasien-Institut, Universität Heidelberg series; volume 181
Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany; 1998

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‘Tales and Similes from Malayagiri’s Commentary on the Vyavahāra-bhāṣya’ Willem B. Bollée: Indologica Taurinensia
volume 31
International Association of Sanskrit Studies; 2005

Full details

Atonements in the Ancient Ritual of Jaina Monks Colette Caillat: L. D. series; volume 45
L. D. Institute of Indology; Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India; 1975

Full details

Studien zum Mahānisiḥa, Kapitel 1–5
Jozef Deleu and Walther Schubring: Alt- und Neu-Indische Studien series; volume 10
De Gruyter & Co; Hamburg, Germany; 1963

Full details

Early Jainism K. K. Dixit: L. D. series; volume 64
L. D. Institute of Indology; Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India; 1978

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The Jains Paul Dundas: Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices series; series editor John Hinnels and Ninian Smart; volume 14
Routledge Curzon Press; London, UK; 2002

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‘Protecting the Faith: Exploring the concerns of Jain monastic rules’ Phyllis Granoff: Studies in Jaina History and Culture: Jaina Law
edited by Peter Flügel
Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies series; volume 4
Routledge Curzon Press; London, UK; 2013 – forthcoming

Full details

Studien zum Mahānisīha, Kapitel 6–8
Frank-Richard Hamm and Walther Schubring: Alt- und Neu-Indische Studien series; volume 6
De Gruyter & Co; Hamburg, Germany; 1951

Full details

Illustrated Shri Chhed Sutra: Dashashrut Skandh, Brihat Kalp, Vyavahar Pravarttak Shri Mamar Muniji Maharaj, Amar Muni and Srichand Surana 'Saras': Illustrated Agam series; volume 17
Padma Prakashan and Shree Diwakar Prakashan; New Delhi, India; 2005

Full details

‘Retrieving the Hidden Meaning: Jain Commentarial Techniques and the Art of Memory’ Mari Jyäväsjarvi: Journal of Indian Philosophy
volume 38
2010

Full details

'The Kalpa-sūtra: An Old Collection of Disciplinary Rules for Jaina Monks' Walther Schubring: translated by May S. Burgess
Indian Antiquary
volume 39
1910

Full details

Drei Chedasūtras des Jaina-Kanons: Āyāradasāo, Vavahāra, Nisīha Walther Schubring: Alt- und Neu-Indische Studien series; volume 11
De Gruyter & Co; Hamburg, Germany; 1966

Full details

‘Narratives in the Pañcakalpabhāṣya and cognate texts’ Chandrabhāl Tripāṭhī: Indologica Taurinensia
edited by Nalini Balbir and Colette Caillat
volume 11
International Association of Sanskrit Studies; 1983

Full details

Jaina Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras Robert Williams: London Oriental series; volume XIV
Oxford University Press; London, UK; 1963

Full details

Links

Three monks crossing a river

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, USA, presents this lavishly illustrated folio from a Kalpa-sūtra-Kālakācārya manuscript. Dating from the late 15th century, this western Indian picture demonstrates artistic developments that became common in later Indian paintings.

http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/60050555

Bodleian Library

The Bodleian Library is part of the University of Oxford, the official university library with various specialist libraries. It boasts extremely extensive collections of books, newspapers, magazines, journals, manuscripts, maps, musical scores, and official and personal papers, both ancient and modern. With large Jain holdings, the Bodleian is a JAINpedia partner.

http://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/bodley/home

British Library

One of the JAINpedia partners, the British Library is the national library of the UK. Based in London, it holds millions of historical and contemporary documents of all kinds, including books, newspapers, magazines, journals, manuscripts, musical scores and political and personal papers and letters. It also has a large collection of sound recordings and illustrations. Its collection of Jain manuscripts is one of the biggest outside India.

http://www.bl.uk/

Victoria and Albert Museum

The V&A in London specialises in art and design. Its enormous collections include historical and contemporary sculptures, textiles, furniture, jewellery, photographs, drawings, books, prints, ceramics, glass- and metalwork, theatre and performance artefacts. It has extensive Asian holdings, including many illustrated Jain manuscripts, and is one of the JAINpedia partners.

http://www.vam.ac.uk/

Wellcome Collection

Part of the Wellcome Institute, the Wellcome Collection is one of the JAINpedia partners. Its extensive collections include historical and contemporary books, manuscripts, prints, paintings, photographs and films, with a bias towards science and medicine. The Wellcome holdings of Jain materials are small but valuable and interesting.

http://www.wellcomecollection.org/

Jain eLibrary

The Jain eLibrary provides PDFs or other files of Jain texts to download for non-commercial purposes. Scriptures, commentaries, dictionaries, articles, magazines and books on all aspects of Jainism are available in many languages, including English and modern Indian languages. Most sects are represented and both ancient and contemporary works are included.

Only registered users who have signed into the site can download material. To register, you must provide a valid email address, a password and some personal details.

You will need to have Adobe Acrobat Reader on your computer to open PDF files.

https://jainelibrary.org

Centre of Jaina Studies, SOAS

The Centre of Jaina Studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in the University of London, is the only academic centre specialising in Jain research outside India. Established in 2004, the centre hosts an annual conference for scholars of Jainism and publishes an annual newsletter and the International Journal of Jaina Studies (Online). It also runs undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in Jain studies.

http://www.soas.ac.uk/jainastudies

Royal Asiatic Society

Based in London, the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland dates back to 1823, when it was founded to assist scholarly investigation into the history, cultures, religions and languages of Asia. The society has a large library, including an extensive manuscript collection, organises seminars and lectures, and publishes a journal three times a year.

https://royalasiaticsociety.org

Bhogilal Leherchand Institute of Indology

The Bhogilal Leherchand Institute of Indology in New Delhi focuses on scholarly research into Śvetāmbara Jainism. With a library of manuscripts for research, it organises academic seminars and publishes scholarly books.

http://blinstitute.org/

Institut Français de Pondichéry

The French Institute of Pondicherry is a research centre of the French Ministry of Foreigh Affairs. Founded in 1955, it undertakes scholarly research and training in South and South-East Asia. The website is in English.

https://www.ifpindia.org

Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Institute of Indology and Museum

Based in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, the Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Institute of Indology is a national centre affiliated to the National Mission for Manuscripts. With a library of manuscripts, it has a specific section for manuscript preservation and cataloguing. In addition to holding seminars for researchers into Śvetāmbara Jainism, the L. D. Institute publishes books and the Sambodhi journal in English, Hindi and Gujarati. The L. D. Museum, on the same site, holds an important collection of Jain artefacts – statues, manuscripts, the N. C. Mehta Collection of paintings and a gallery of monastic equipment that belonged to Muni Puṇyavijaya.

http://www.ldmuseum.co.in/

Mahavir Aradhana Kendra – institute

Based around the pilgrimage site of Mahaviralaya – a temple dedicated to Mahāvīra, the last Jina – Mahavir Aradhana Kendra is a manuscript library and research institute, which publishes academic books, chiefly on Śvetāmbara Jainism. There is also a museum that includes the monastic equipment used by Gacchādhipati Ācārya Śrī Kailāsaāgara-sūrīśvara Mahārāj.

http://kobatirth.org/default.aspx

Parshvanath Vidyashram Research Institute

The Parshvanath Vidyashram Research Institute focuses on research into Śvetāmbara Jainism. Based in Varanasi, in Uttar Pradesh, it has a manuscript library and publishes books and the Śramaṇ journal in Hindi and English.

http://parshwanathvidyapeeth.org/

Indian universities with departments of Jain studies

Jainworld provides a list of Indian universities that have departments with researchers in or courses investigating aspects of Jainism.

https://jainworld.com/education/universitiesfoundations/

Jain research institutions in India

Jainworld provides a list of research institutions in India that focus on various aspects of Jainism.

https://jainworld.com/education/research-institutions/

Jain Vishva Bharati University

Located in Ladnun, Rajasthan, the Jain Vishva Bharati University is closely associated with the Terāpanthin monastic order. It also offers programmes in academic fields besides Jain studies.

http://jvbi.ac.in/

Centre of Jaina Studies Newsletter

The Centre of Jaina Studies in the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), at the University of London, publishes an annual newsletter, which is available to download as a PDF. The newsletter features:

articles
summaries of research
academic news
book reviews
reports of exhibitions
otifications and reports of conferences and symposia.

You will need to have Adobe Acrobat Reader on your computer to open PDF files.

http://www.soas.ac.uk/jainastudies/newsletter/

Institute of Oriental Manuscripts

Based in St Petersburg, the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts holds 150 Jain manuscripts. The website gives full information in English about the history and work of this research institute, part of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

http://www.orientalstudies.ru/eng/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=46&Itemid=82

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