Article: Bhaktāmara-stotra

Digambara yantras
Image by Nalini Balbir © Nalini Balbir

Mānatuṅga is recognised as a Jain religious teacher of great prestige in both the Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions. The Bhaktāmara-stotra, which is his most celebrated work, is also famous among lay devotees and mendicants of both sects.

The only difference lies in the number of stanzas in the versions of each sect. They total 44 for the Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjaks and 48 for the Digambaras. The non-image-worshipping Śvetāmbaras of the Sthānaka-vāsins and Terāpanthins also admit 48 verses. See for instance the Illustrated Bhaktamar Stotra, produced by Śvetāmbara Sthānaka-vāsins.

The four additional verses found in the 48-verse version lie between stanzas 31 and 36. Verses 28 to 31, which both sectarian versions have, describe four objects associated with the state of a Jina, underlining his royal status. The extra stanzas add four more attributes. The total list of eight qualities corresponds to what is known as ‘miraculous phenomena’ – prātihārya. These are present when a Jina reaches omniscience – kevala-jñāna – and preaches during the general assembly – samavasaraṇa.

The prātihāryas form a clear set in the Digambara tradition. In the older Śvetāmbara tradition, however, the term is not used, although the elements do exist. This has resulted in a number of positions regarding the Bhaktāmara-stotra, including:

• Śvetāmbaras arguing that the other sect has added four verses to complete the set that exists elsewhere in the Digambara tradition
• Digambaras holding that the original number of verses is 48, citing the fact that the number of diagrams associated with the hymn is always 48
• recent Indian scholarship (Dhaky and Shah) asserting that the absence of four verses is a sign that the hymn was composed when the concept of prātihāryas was not fully developed in Śvetāmbara sources.

The situation is even more complicated because each term in the eightfold set is allotted one stanza in the Kalyāṇa-mandira-stotra. This is a famous hymn dedicated to the 23rd Jina, Pārśvanātha or Lord Pārśva, that is quite close to the Bhaktāmara-stotra in style.

R̥ṣabha meditating
Image by British Library © CC0 1.0 (Creative Commons Public Domain)

The poet has composed a hymn of praise to the first Jina, who is specified at the beginning. However, the hymn pays more attention to the general attributes of the Jina concept than to the individual qualities of Ṛṣabhanātha or Lord Ṛṣabha, the first Jina.

In the opening stanzas Mānatuṅga pays homage ‘to the two feet of the Jina, who is like a support in the beginning of the era’ – yugādau – and then says ‘I will praise the first Jina’ – prathamaṃ Jinendraṃ.

But no name as such appears in the poem. The Jina is first referred to as ‘him’ and later, as devotion increases closeness, is addressed as ‘you’. No individual reference or name relating to the life of the first Jina, Ṛṣabhanātha or Ādinātha, ‘the Lord of the beginning’, is found otherwise. There is no mention of a specific feature except allusions to ‘his sun-like colour’, which can be understood as referring to the golden colour of this Jina. Even so, other Jinas are associated with the colour gold.

The Bhaktāmara-stotra is, rather, a hymn to any Jina because it deals primarily with the nature and attributes of a Jina as a supreme entity. Beyond karma and rebirth, he is dispassionate, representing infinite knowledge as well as bliss. The hymn is thus a celebration of the liberated soul. It is the result of full devotion – bhakti – to a spiritual being. Many other Jain hymns narrate a specific Jina’s life in the form of a praise, but not this one. Here the poet explicitly states that devotion justifies his undertaking and gives it any quality it might have.

Two features are repeatedly underlined in the devotional song. These following qualities make a Jina distinctive and create a special atmosphere:

• radiant light and perfect brightness, which are unequalled
• perfect serenity and peace, also unmatched.

To demonstrate the first point, the poet systematically compares with the Jina other well-known standards of light or brightness, particularly the sun and the moon.

The second characteristic is compared with the three main Hindu gods of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva. The Bhaktāmara-stotra does not go into polemics, but verse 15 clearly states the common idea that these Hindu deities are liable to be attracted by female beauty and thus may lose their steadiness.

Another recurring theme of the hymn is the emphasis on the Jina’s perfection. He has only positive qualities, with no defects or impurities. These qualities are beyond expression.

Demonstrating devotion in the Jain faith involves mentioning, remembering or reciting a particular name, because it is credited with a special power. It is significant that the name is described as a mantra. It can remove all kinds of physical fears or dangers, which are duly described in the latter stanzas as fear of:

• elephants
• lions
• fire
• snakes
• war
• water or sea-travel
• disease
• imprisonment.

As such, the Bhaktāmara-stotra is part of the ‘Seven Remembrances’ – Sapta-smaraṇas – or ‘Nine Remembrances’ – Nava-smaraṇas. These are the groups of hymns that make up the heart of Jain liturgy among Śvetāmbaras.

In modern times this hymn has been seen as containing a definition of divinity in the Jain sense of the word. In the late 19th century Muni Ātmārām argued that it proves Jains are not atheists (Cort 2006: 99).

Pages of a modern Bhaktāmara-stotra
Image by Nalini Balbir © Nalini Balbir

The popularity of the Bhaktāmara-stotra is evidenced by numerous commentaries in Sanskrit and vernacular languages, and by many poetic or prose translations. Contemporary Jains may know it in either Sanskrit or modern languages.

Scholar-monks wrote commentaries on the hymn probably soon after its composition, with the earliest surviving commentary dating from the 14th century. Commentaries are still being produced on this widespread song of devotion.

Examples of significant commentaries in Sanskrit on the hymn are in the table.

Surviving translations of the Bhaktāmara-stotra into vernacular languages date back to the 17th century. Translations are still being undertaken in modern times. Recent translations may be recorded and circulated on modern audio technology. Contemporary Jains may prefer these for their devotions to the original Sanskrit text.

The table gives details of some important vernacular language translations of the hymn.

There are also many modern presentations of the contents of the hymn, which may show sectarian orientations. There are also several contemporary imitations of the poem that reuse certain phrases (see examples in Cort 2006: 102).

Miniature copy of the Bhaktāmara-stotra
Image by Nalini Balbir © Nalini Balbir

The Bhaktāmara-stotra is one of the hymns most widely found in worship and ritual. It is used in private or communal acts of worship and is also the focus of a dedicated rite – Bhaktāmara-pūjā.

Most Jain houses have a copy of the Bhaktāmara-stotra. The text is available in many forms as there is an infinite number of popular editions. In particular, this hymn can be read in miniature books no larger than 5 by 7 centimetres, which may have the Sanskrit text, a translation in Gujarati or Hindi and some illustrations. Its popularity is further evidenced by the availability of a fairly large number of manuscript copies in Jain manuscript libraries.

The most common way of using the Bhaktāmara-stotra is for a Jain to read or recite it at home. It seems unanimously accepted that the most appropriate time is the early morning. Worshippers are recommended to face the east or the north during recitation. Mendicants also chant or recite this hymn, which is at the centre of Jain ‘devotional culture’ (Cort 2006).

In addition, the hymn itself is the object of ceremonial worship – Bhaktāmara-pūjā. There are other famous hymns that are similarly the centre of worship, but not many. Examples include the:

• Namaskāra-mantra
• Uvassagahara-stotra
• Santikara-stotra
• Kalyāṇamandira-stotra.

Nowadays collective worship ceremonies are increasingly organised and provide occasions for people to gather for religious and social purposes. They take place in India but also among the Jain diaspora communities in the UK and USA. Examples in London reported on the HereNow4U website include:

• 24 hours spent chanting the Bhaktāmara-stotra for the Akṣaya-tr̥tīyā festival on 20th April 2007
• the Bhaktāmara-stotra-pūjā during the 2006 festival of Paryuṣaṇ.

Auspicious yantra
Image by British Library © CC0 1.0 (Creative Commons Public Domain)

A full performance of worship involving the Bhaktāmara-stotra implies reciting the verses but also chanting the mantras and contemplating the accompanying drawings of mystical diagrams – yantras. Both these elements have developed in association with the Bhaktāmara-stotra. Each verse has come to have its own mantra and yantra, as manuscripts show.

One manuscript of the 44-verse version of the hymn on JAINpedia, under the British Library shelfmark Or. 13741, is a good representative of this trend. Each of the verses has the:

• original Sanskrit verse, called ‘poem’ – kāvya
• corresponding mantra
• procedure to draw the corresponding diagram, all of different forms
• diagram itself, filled with the syllables of the mantra.

Such manuscripts are also widely known among the sect of the Digambaras. The website of the International Digamber Jain Organization provides digital versions of examples held in India, such as this lavishly illustrated manuscript and this colourful manuscript.

This tradition is continued in modern handbooks on the ritual of Bhaktāmara worship (Pandit and Shah 1999). Comparisons of the mantras and yantras in various sources suggest that there are traditional associations, though it is not set in stone. The same mantras and similar yantras are used for a given verse, but several variants are found.

On the other hand, independent yantras relating to this hymn are also available.

Final verse of the Bhaktāmara-stotra
Image by Diwakar Prakashan / Padma Prakashan © Diwakar Prakashan / Padma Prakashan

Traditional manuscripts and modern publications of the Bhaktāmara-stotra use paintings and drawings quite often. In addition to the yantras that usually accompany the text, painted scenes may illustrate the text. Like the yantras, such depictions may help worshippers focus on their prayer and avoid distractions.

There are a few Digambara manuscripts of the Bhaktāmara-stotra where the verses are illustrated by figurative paintings and scenes. They do not depict the stories from the commentaries, but the text of the verses. Thus abstract concepts are translated into pictures (Granoff 2010). The picture is divided into several elements, which are accompanied by words from the text as captions. The pages look rather like or are presented like those of comic books. These paintings are thus reworkings of the words of text in a different medium.

These manuscripts show features characteristic of Digambara paintings, such as the:

• depiction of Mānatuṅga as a full-fledged, naked Digambara monk
• Jina shown fully naked and devoid of any ornament or anything else.

In modern popular editions produced among Śvetāmbaras, similar paintings are found, but Mānatuṅga is depicted as a Śvetāmbara monk.

A devotee finds the presence of such paintings effective.

There are many means of attaining deep concentration in chanting a devotional song. The simplest available means is looking at an illustration. In the illustration the form of our Lord and the sentiments of the devotee appear to take tangible shape. The visual depiction of the meaning of the words we recite, when seen in the illustration, makes us understand the essence effortlessly, and that visual imagery is absorbed by the mind. As such, looking at the illustration[,] besides simplifying the meaning of the words, helps [with] achieving concentration. The problem of distraction from meditation and devotion is automatically solved. It is my personal experience that[,] while reading the couplets[,] when I look at the illustrations there appears a stability in the thoughts, a harmony in feelings and an unprecedented and undescribable emotional involvement. There rises a feeling of proximity with the Lord. Even while looking away from the scene, the image lingers on for some time. The memory of pure feelings and images keep the mind engrossed in devotion

Illustrated Bhaktamar Stotra, Preface, page 7

Symbol of the full jar
Image by British Library © CC0 1.0 (Creative Commons Public Domain)

Given the value attached to this hymn, its popularity and pre-eminence in ritual and worship, it is not surprising that there are a few temples where the Bhaktāmara-stotra is given prominence. The text is usually inscribed either in full or in part on temple walls.

These are relatively modern developments, parallel to the ever-increasing devotion to this hymn. The hymn has become the centre of religious culture because of the way it describes the Jina and the power ascribed to its verses.

Although he does not go into detail, Kapashi (2007: 76) states that:

there are at least three beautiful temples in India totally devoted to this stotra. In each temple all the verses of this stotra with their yantras have been carved in marble, and the statues of the first Tīrthaṅkara R̥ṣabhadeva, as well as the poet of this stotra have been erected in these temples[.]

Instances of temples that feature the Bhaktāmara-stotra are given in the table.

Other such temples are in:

• Pune, Maharashtra
• Sammet Shikhar, Bihar
• Sankheshwar, in Gujarat.

See page 110 of Cort 2006 for more information.